Research Report P100

Model Formulas from the Literature

Steps in Problem Solving

From my large card file on formulas for the scientific method, problem solving, decision making, etc., I selected these as typical of those offered for problem solving.

The lessons to be learned here are:

• The teaching of problem solving would be greatly improved if a standard complete model formula, such as SM-14, was universally taught. This would result in a tremendous improvement in the success and happiness of our citizens as they become better problem solvers.
• I believe it is better to use the term stages rather than steps. But as step is more commonly used, I also often use it so that my work is better understood.

The authors presenting these model formulas deserve praise, as many authors writing on problem solving do not give a clear cut model formula.

Source: Against Method (1988) by Paul Feyerabend

Comment: We start off with a formula that has a bit of humor but also an element of truth considering what often goes on in public affairs.

The author complains that social problems, problems of energy distribution, ecology, education, care for the elderly, etc., are “solved” by:

1. A problem arises.
2. Nothing is done about it.
3. People get concerned.
4. Politicians broadcast this concern.
5. Experts are called in.
6. They develop theories and plans.
7. Power groups with their own experts effect various modifications until a watered down version is accepted and realized.

The end result is an ideological theory of human needs produced by “abstract models” as opposed to a realistic study produced by humans themselves.

Note that the above formula illustrates why in public policy making, a model formula such as SM-14 is needed.

Source: You’re Smarter Than You Think (1985) by Linda Moore

Comment: The author points out that these are the “steps of the problem solving process.”

1. Recognize the problem
2. Define the problem
3. Is this really your problem?
4. Prioritize
5. Gather more data
6. Come to a conclusion
7. Test your hypothesis
8. Act

Source: The Triarchic Mind (1988) by Robert J. Sternberg

Comment: 7 step problem solving

Source: Team Planning for Educational Leaders: A Training Handbook (1987) by Rima Miller

Comment: The author terms these “the problem-solving process.”

• Identifying the problem
• Generating alternatives
• Assessing alternatives
• Selecting a solution

Source: Living Psychology (1970) by Gerald L. Hershey and James O. Lugo

Comment: The author says, “The scientific method employs the same steps most of us use in thinking about and solving everyday problems:

1. Defining the problem
2. Planning a method of attack
3. Carrying out the plan
4. Evaluating the results”

Source: Essay by Robert J. Sternberg in Essays on the Intellect (1985) edited by Frances R. Link

Comment: This formula is abstracted from Figure 3.1 in the essay Gubbin’s Matrix of Thinking Skills, Part 1.

I. Problem Solving

1. Identifying general problem
2. Clarifying problem
3. Formulating hypothesis
4. Formulating appropriate questions
5. Generating related ideas
6. Formulating alternative solutions
7. Choosing best solution
8. Applying the solution
9. Monitoring acceptance of the solution
10. Drawing conclusions

Source: Teaching Thinking: Issues and Approaches (1990) by Swartz and Perkins

Comment: The author says these are “strategies and attitudes involved in problem solving.” Another 7 step problem solving.

1. Do not settle for the first plan that presents itself.
2. Search vigorously for alternatives.
3. Examine how you present the problem to yourself.
            a. Are there unnecessary assumptions?
  b. How else could the problem be conceived?

4. List possible solutions uncritically; then sift them.
5. Carefully make a comparative evaluation of alternatives (consider consequences/costs).
6. Maintain attitudes of
            a. perseverance
  b. playful exploration
7. Apply subskills of creative thinking.

Source: Problem Based Learning (1994) by Donald R. Woods

Comment: Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University. Excellent books on problem solving for engineering students.

1. Engage: I want to and I can
2. Define stated problem
3. Explore: create internal idea of problem
4. Plan a solution
5. Do it; carry out a plan. Evaluate and look back

Source: The Psychology of Thinking: McGraw-Hill Series in Psychology (1952)

Comment: Note that the author uses stages, not steps.

Source: How to Solve Problem by the Scientific Method (1968) by Gould and Richard

Comment: The author says, “Six basic steps, no more – no less, in solving any problem, whether it be mathematical or literary.”

1. Determine the problem
2. Determine the “given” facts which define the limitations of the situation, information with which we can begin the problem
3. Assemble the necessary “related” facts
4. Combine the “given” information of Step 2 with the “related” information of Step 3
5. The proper combination of given and related facts, as accomplished in Step 4, will automatically result in the correct solution to the problem.
6. Check the analysis and solution for accuracy.

Source: Creative Education Foundation, 289 Bay Road, Hadley, MA 01035, www.creativeeducationfoundation.org

Comment: They specialize in creative problem solving. Since about 1953 they have taught this model formula for creative problem solving (without reference to scientific method) to millions of seminar attendees and others. They have a wide variety of material on creative problem solving.

Current Osborn-Parness Process:

Objective finding

Fact finding

Problem finding

Idea finding

Solution finding

Acceptance finding

Source: The Shape of Automation (1965) by Herbert Simon

Comment: While Simon, often called the father of artificial intelligence, is talking about decision making, you must remember that decision making is just a form of problem solving.

“Nevertheless, the three large phases are often clearly discernible as the organizational process unfolds. They are closely related to the stages in problem solving first described by John Dewey:

Please Note:

For model formulas for the scientific method, see Research Report #11, Steps of the Scientific Method – Model Formulas from the Literature at www.scientificmethod.com.

For model formulas for decision making, see Research Report #4, Models, Systems, Guides for Decision Making in the Literature, at www.decisionmaking.org.